Conventions often involve prolonged negotiations before they are adopted, and need a certain number of countries to ratify them before they become effective.

Environmental issues such as the transboundary movement of hazardous wastes, the depletion of the ozone layer, threats to global biodiversity, pollution of the seas, desertification, climate change, are now addressed in various conventions, ratifies by many countries in the world, including members of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). These agreements have been generally described as management of the "commons", which refers to management of resources which are shared by several states, and which constitute the common concern of humankind.

Some of the major conventions which have been introduced over the past two decades include:

The RAMSAR Convention or the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat or simply, the Convention on Wetlands, adopted in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, provides the framework for international cooperation for the conservation of wetland habitats.

Many wetland habitats have international importance. They are affected by human activities in their entire catchment. Wetlands are very sensitive to transboundary air and water pollution. Many wetland fauna are migratory species whose conservation and management require international cooperation. Under the convention, which came into force in 1975, the contracting parties should, among other things, designate at least one wetland for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance.

One of the SADC region’s initiatives to implement the Ramsar Convention is the Regional Wetlands Programme coordinated by the World Conservation Union Regional Office for Southern Africa (IUCN – ROSA) and the Southern African Development Community Environment and Land Management Sector (SADC ELMS)

CITES or the Convention on International Trade in Endagered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora regulates and, in some cases, bans trade in endangered species to preserve genetic diversity. The convention came into effect in 1975 and the agreed endangered species covered by the convetion are classified into three appendices. Species can be removed or transferred from one appendix to another, with approval of the states which are party to the convention.

In 1989, the conference passed a resolution listing the African elephant in Appendix1, banning trade in elephant products(ivory and hide) despite opposition from some SADC countries such as Botswana, Malawi and Zimbabwe. Most of the SADC countries with large elephant herds are against the ban, arguing that it is irrational. These countries believe that sustainable utilisation of elephants is the right approach, since it is beneficial for the habitat, the local people and the elephants themselves.

The seas are rich in oil and other minerals including cobalt, copper and nickel, and the access to and over exploitation of these resources have been increasing. Fish and other aquatic animals, which account for 17 percent of the animal protein in the human diet and over 30 countries get one-third of their animal protein from sea food, have been over harvested and their habitats destroyed. The seas have been used as dumping ground for debris and hazardous wastes, and for destructive military activities, such as nuclear testing.

Recognising that the degradation of marine ecosystems cuts across national boundaries and that the issue could only be solved through cooperative effort, the Convention on the Law of the Sea was adopted in 1982 in Montego Bay, Jamaica.

The convention, which came into force in November 1995, deals not only with legal and economic issues but with all aspects of ocean space, including environmental control, scientific research, economic and commercial activities, technology, delimitation and settlement of disputes.

It also includes provisions on conservation of living resources resources of the oceans, maintenance and restoration of populations of species, and protection of the sea from pollution.

The adoption of this convention in Montreal was the starting point of the global cooperation for the protection of the ozone layer in the statosphere.

Any developing country party to the protocol whose annual level of consumption of the controlled substances is less than 0.3 kg per capita (on the date of the entry into force of the protocol or any time thereafter until January 1999), is entitled to delay for 10 years its compliance with the control measures set up by the convention.

The convention was amended in London (1990) and Copenhagen (1992). The amendments required for the phase-out of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in industrialised countries by 1996 and imposed restrictions on the use of a number of other ozonedepleting chemicals.

Southern African countries contribute a very low percentage (less than two percent of the global gas emission) of gases which deplete the ozone layer although they have signed the convention.

The control system provided by this convention adopted in 1989, ensures that no hazardous wastes are shipped to a country which has banned their import. Every country has the obligation to reduce the generation of hazardous wastes to a minimum, and to dispose of them as close as possible to the source of generation. The problem of international traffic of hazardous wastes gained prominence in 1988, when media coverage alerted the public to the uncontrolled dumping of millions of tonnes of toxic wastes across national borders, particularly in Africa.

This prompted world-wide public awareness of the growing threat to human health and the environment due to toxic wastes, the by-products of industry.

Most African countries refused to ratify the Basel Convention, due to fear that it was not strong enough to stop dumpers from using Africa as a landfill for dangerous chemicals. They instead launched their own convention in Bamako, Mali, in 1991.

The Bamako Convention, adopted by all SADC countries, aims to promote the development of clean production methods, for the sound management of hazardous waste produced in Africa.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)

In May 1992, in Nairobi, Kenya, the nations of the world adopted a global Convention on Biological Diversity. At the Rio de Janeiro Conference a record number of over 150 states signed it, and it entered into force in 1993.

This convention is a landmark from several points of view: it is the first time that biodiversity, as such, is comphrehensively addressed; the first time that genetic diversity is specifically covered in a binding global treaty; and the first time that the conservation of biodiversity is recognised as the common concern of humankind.

The objective of the convention is to conserve biological diversity, promote the use of its components, and encourage equitable sharing in the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources.

Successful programmes aimed at implementing this convention are taking place in southern African countries, for example, the Communal Area Management Programme For Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), in Zimbabwe, and the Wetlands Programme in the Kafue and Bangweulu flats, in Zambia.

They have been successfully implemented with support from the local communities which benefit from wildlife management activities.

During the 1980s, scientific evidence showing the possibility of global climate change led to growing public concern. In 1992, the Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted by 155 countries at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (or Earth Summit) in rio de Janeiro, and entered into force in 1994.

The ultimate objective of the convention is to achieve the stabilisation of the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane and ozone) concetration in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human-caused) interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time –frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.

The predicted impact of climate change can be serious for the people of this region, since the agricultural sector can be highly affected.

Some crops such as maize would no t be able to stand higher temperatures and precipitation changes. Natural vegetation would undergo serious changes and desert and semi-desert areas would expand, especially in countries such as Botswana and Zimbabwe.

The Convention to Combat Desertification (1994)

Africa was given priority and particu.ar attention in this convention, because desertification has its greatest impact on the continent. Two-thirds of the African continent is desert or drylands and 73 percent of its agricultural drylands are already severely or moderately degraded.

Due to physical factors (plant cover, fire, drought), management factors (grazing intensity, cultivation of marginal lands), and historical and socio-economic factors (inequitable land allocation, population densities and poverty), land degradation in SADC countries is now a growing phenomenon.

The Desert Margins Initiative (DMI), just getting underway, is one of Zimbabwe’s initiatives to implement this convention. DMI’s goal is to enhance food security for rural populations and alleviate poverty by halting or reversing desertification. The programme will focus on rainfed crop, tree and livestock production systems in dryland areas receiving between 100-600 mm rainfall annually.

Southern African governments should regularly review their action programmes. They should also focus on awareness-raising, education and training to effectively implement the conventions.

The participation of local communities should also be considered when formulating sustainable development policies. Governments have to incorporate the implementation of the conventions and agreements into the socio-economic development plans.

In some SADC counties, the absence of rules and regulations, at a national level, to give effect to international level obligation, is a pressing problem. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have played pivotal roles in protecting the environment, working at the grassroots level. They have been at the forefront of environmental awareness-raising bothe at grassroots and policy-making levels.

Associacao Angolana para o Meio-Ambiente Ministry of Wildlife, Nature

C.P. 2110, Luanda P. Bag 13346, Windhoek

Angola Namibia

Environmetal Conservation Society Department of Environmental

University of Botswana, Affairs

P.Bag 0022, Gaborone P. Bag X447, Pretoria 0001

Botswana South Africa

SADC-Environment and Land Ministry of Natural Resources,

Management Sector Land Utilisation and Energy

P.O. Box 24, Maseru 100 P.O. Box 57, Mbabane

Lesotho Swaziland

Ministry of Research and Environmetal Affairs National Environmental

P.O. Box 30745, Lilongwe 3 Management Council

Malawi P.O. Box 63154, Dar es Salaam

Tanzania

Ministry of Environment and Quality

Of Life National Environment Council

10^th Floor, Ken Lee Tower, Barracks Street, Of Zambia

Port Louis P.O. Box 35131, Lusaka

Mauritius Zambia

Ministerio para a Coordenacao da Ministry of Enviornment and Tourism

Accao Ambinetal P.Bag 7753, Causeway, Harare

C.P. 2020, Maputo Zimbabwe